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Male Rape
There were approximately 4,890 rapes
of males age 12 and over in the United States in 1994. The
rate for rapes of males was .8 per 1,000 persons age 12 or
older. (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1997).
In 1985, the U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice
Statistics reported in The Crime of Rape that there were
123,000 male rapes over a ten-year period. (Bureau of
Justice Statistics, 1985).
Overview
Society is becoming increasingly aware of male rape.
However, experts believe that current male rape statistics
vastly under-represent the actual number of males age 12 and
over who are raped each year. Rape crisis counselors
estimate that while only one in 50 raped women report the
crime to the police, the rates of under-reporting among men
are even higher (Brochman, 1991). Until the mid-1980s, most
literature discussed this violent crime in the context of
women only. The lack of tracking of sexual crimes against
men and the lack of research about the effects of male rape
are indicative of the attitude held by society at large --
that while male rape occurs, it is not an acceptable topic
for discussion.
Historically, the rape of males was more widely recognized
in ancient times. Several of the legends in Greek mythology
involved abductions and sexual assaults of males by other
males or gods. The rape of a defeated male enemy was
considered the special right of the victorious soldier in
some societies and was a signal of the totality of the
defeat. There was a widespread belief that a male who was
sexually penetrated, even if it was by forced sexual
assault, thus "lost his manhood," and could no longer be a
warrior or ruler. Gang rape of a male was considered an
ultimate form of punishment and, as such, was known to the
Romans as punishment for adultery and the Persians and
Iranians as punishment for violation of the sanctity of the
harem (Donaldson, 1990).
A. Nicholas Groth, a clinical psychologist and author of Men
Who Rape: The Psychology of the Offender, says all sexual
assault is an act of aggression, regardless of the gender or
age of the victim or the assailant. Neither sexual desire
nor sexual deprivation is the primary motivating force
behind sexual assault. It is not about sexual gratification,
but rather a sexual aggressor using somebody else as a means
of expressing their own power and control.
Much has been written about the psychological trauma
associated with the rape of female victims. While less
research has been conducted about male rape victims, case
research suggests that males also commonly experience many
of the reactions that females experience. These reactions
include: depression, anger, guilt, self-blame, sexual
dysfunctions, flashbacks, and suicidal feelings (Isley,
1991). Other problems facing males include an increased
sense of vulnerability, damaged self-image and emotional
distancing (Mezey & King, 1989). Male rape victims not only
have to confront unsympathetic attitudes if they choose to
press charges, they also often hear unsupportive statements
from their friends, family and acquaintances (Brochman,
1991). People will tend to fault the male victim instead of
the rapist. Stephen Donaldson, president of Stop Prisoner
Rape (a national education and advocacy group), says that
the suppression of knowledge of male rape is so powerful and
pervasive that criminals such as burglars and robbers
sometimes rape their male victims as a sideline solely to
prevent them from going to the police.
There are many reasons that male victims do not come forward
and report being raped, but perhaps the biggest reason for
many males is the fear of being perceived as homosexual.
However, male sexual assault has nothing to do with the
sexual orientation of the attacker or the victim, just as a
sexual assault does not make the victim survivor gay,
bisexual or heterosexual. It is a violent crime that affects
heterosexual men as much as gay men. The phrase "homosexual
rape," for instance, which is often used by uninformed
persons to designate male-male rape, camouflages the fact
that the majority of the rapists are not generally
homosexual (Donaldson, 1990).
In a well-known study of offenders and victims conducted by
Nicholas Groth and Ann Burgess, one-half of the offender
population described their consenting sexual encounters to
be with women only, while 38 percent had consenting sexual
encounters with men and women. Additionally, one-half of the
victim population was strictly heterosexual. Among the
offenders studied, the gender of the victim did not appear
to be of specific significance to half of the offenders.
Instead, they appeared to be relatively indiscriminate with
regard to their choice of a victim -- that is, their victims
included both males and females, as well as both adults and
children (Groth & Burgess, 1980). The choice of a victim
seemed to be more a matter of accessibility than of sexual
orientation, gender or age.
Many people believe that the majority of male rape occurs in
prison; however, there is existing research which shatters
this myth. A study of incarcerated and non-incarcerated male
rape victims in Tennessee concluded that the similarities
between these two groups would suggest that the sexual
assault of men may not be due to conditions unique to a
prison and that all men are potential victims (Lipscomb et
al., 1992).
Research indicates that the most common sites for male rape
involving post-puberty victims are outdoors in remote areas
and in automobiles (the latter usually involving
hitchhikers). Boys in their early and mid-teens are more
likely to be victimized than older males (studies indicate a
median victim age of 17). The form of assault usually
involves penetration of the victim anally and/or orally,
rather than stimulation of the victim's penis. Gang rape is
more common in cases involving male victims than those
involving female victims. Also, multiple sexual acts are
more likely to be demanded, weapons are more likely to be
displayed and used, and physical injury is more likely to
occur, with the injuries that do occur being more serious
than with injured female rape victims (Porter, 1986).
Definition
Sexual assault and rape include any unwanted sexual acts.
The assailant can be a stranger, an acquaintance, a family
member, or someone the victim knows well and trusts. Rape
and sexual assault are crimes of violence and are used to
exert power and control over another person. The legal
definitions of rape and sexual assault can vary from state
to state (National Center for Victims of Crime, INFOLINK,
No. 70. However, usually a sexual assault occurs when a
someone touches any part of another person's body in a
sexual way, even through their clothes, without that
person's consent. Rape of males is any kind of sexual
assault that involves forced penetration of the anus or
mouth by a penis, finger or any other object. Both rape and
sexual assault includes situations when the victim cannot
say "no" because he is disabled, unconscious, drunk or high.
In some states, the word "rape" is used only to define a
forced act of vaginal sexual intercourse, and an act of
forced anal intercourse is termed "sodomy." In some states,
the crime of sodomy also includes any oral sexual act. There
are some states that now use gender-neutral terms to define
acts of forced anal, vaginal or oral intercourse. Also, some
states no longer use the terms "rape" and "sodomy," rather
all sex crimes are described as sexual assaults or criminal
sexual conduct of various degrees depending on the use and
amount of force or coercion on the part of the assailant
(National Center for Victims of Crime, INFOLINK, No. 70).
Victims' Response
It is not uncommon for a male rape victim to blame himself
for the rape, believing that he in some way gave permission
to the rapist (Brochman, 1991). Male rape victims suffer a
similar fear that female rape victims face -- that people
will believe the myth that they may have enjoyed being
raped. Some men may believe they were not raped or that they
gave consent because they became sexually aroused, had an
erection, or ejaculated during the sexual assault. These are
normal, involuntary physiological reactions. It does not
mean that the victim wanted to be raped or sexually
assaulted, or that the survivor enjoyed the traumatic
experience. Sexual arousal does not necessarily mean there
was consent.
According to Groth, some assailants may try to get their
victim to ejaculate because for the rapist, it symbolizes
their complete sexual control over their victim's body.
Since ejaculation is not always within conscious control but
rather an involuntary physiological reaction, rapists
frequently succeed at getting their male victims to
ejaculate. As Groth and Burgess have found in their
research, this aspect of the attack is extremely stressful
and confusing to the victim. In misidentifying ejaculation
with orgasm, the victim may be bewildered by his
physiological response during the sexual assault and,
therefore, may be discouraged from reporting the assault for
fear his sexuality may become suspect (Groth & Burgess,
1980).
Another major concern facing male rape victims is society's
belief that men should be able to protect themselves and,
therefore, it is somehow their fault that they were raped.
The experience of a rape may affect gay and heterosexual men
differently. Most rape counselors point out that gay men
have difficulties in their sexual and emotional
relationships with other men and think that the assault
occurred because they are gay, whereas straight men often
begin to question their sexual identity and are more
disturbed by the sexual aspect of the assault than the
violence involved (Brochman, 1991).
Male Rape as an Act of Anti-Gay Violence
Unfortunately, incidents of anti-gay violence also include
forcible rape, either oral or anal. Attackers frequently use
verbal harassment and name-calling during such a sexual
assault. Given the context of coercion, however, such
technically homosexual acts seem to imply no homosexuality
on the part of the offenders. The victim serves, both
physically and symbolically, as a "vehicle for the sexual
status needs of the offenders in the course of recreational
violence" (Harry, 1992, p.115).
If You Are a Victim
Rape and sexual assault include any unwanted sexual acts.
Even if you agree to have sex with someone, you have the
right to say "no" at any time, and to say "no" to any sexual
acts. If you are sexually assaulted or raped, it is never
your fault -- you are not responsible for the actions of
others.
Richie J. McMullen, author of Male Rape: Breaking the
Silence on the Last Taboo, encourages seeking immediate
medical attention whether or not the incident is reported to
police. Even if you do not seem injured, it is important to
get medical attention. Sometimes injuries that seem minor at
first can get worse. Survivors can sometimes contract a
sexually transmitted disease during the sexual assault, but
not suffer immediate symptoms. Even if the symptoms of that
disease take weeks or months to appear, it might be easily
treated with an early diagnosis. (If you are concerned about
HIV exposure, it is important to talk to a counselor about
the possibility of exposure and the need for testing. For
more information about HIV transmission and testing, contact
the Centers for Disease Control National HIV/AIDS Hotline.
Check the contact list at the end of this bulletin for the
phone number and address information.)
Medical considerations making immediate medical attention
imperative include:
- Rectal and anal tearing and abrasions which may require
attention and put the you at risk for bacterial infections;
- Potential HIV exposure; and
- Exposure to other sexually transmitted diseases.
If you plan to report the rape to the police, an immediate
medical examination is necessary to collect potential
evidence for the investigation and prosecution.
Some of the physical reactions a survivor may experience in
response to the trauma of a sexual assault or rape include:
- Loss of appetite;
- Nausea and/or stomachaches;
- Headaches;
- Loss of memory and/or concentration; and/or
- Changes in sleep patterns.
Some of the psychological and emotional reactions a sexual
assault survivor may experience include:
- Denial and/or guilt;
- Shame or humiliation;
- Fear and a feeling of loss of control;
- Loss of self-respect;
- Flashbacks to the attack;
- Anger and anxiety;
- Retaliation fantasies (sometimes shocking the
survivor with their graphic violence);
- Nervous or compulsive behavior;
- Depression and mood swings;
- Withdrawal from relationships; and
- Changes in sexual activity.
Survivors of rape, and often of attempted rape, usually
manifest some elements of what has come to be called
Rape-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (RR-PTSD), a form
of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (National Victim
Center, INFOLINK). Apart from a small number of therapists
and counselors specializing in sexual assault cases, few
psychotherapists are familiar with the symptoms and
treatment of RR-PTSD. For this reason, a rape survivor is
usually well-advised to consult with a rape crisis center or
someone knowledgeable in this area rather than relying on
general counseling resources. The same applies to those
close to a rape victim, such as a partner, spouse or parent;
these persons become secondary victims of the sexual assault
and have special issues and concerns that they may need
assistance in dealing with effectively.
Local rape crisis centers offer male sexual assault victims
direct services or referrals for services, including:
counseling, crisis services and support services. Victims
may contact their local rape crisis center, no matter how
long it has been since the rape occurred. Counselors on
staff can either provide support, or help direct the victim
to trained professionals who can provide support. Most rape
programs are staffed by women; however, some programs have
male and female counselors. If you prefer one or the other,
make that preference known when you initially contact the
program. Whether or not they have male staff on call, almost
all rape crisis centers can make referrals to male
counselors sensitive to the needs of male sexual assault
survivors. In addition, many communities across the country
have support groups for victims of anti-gay violence.
Counseling can help you cope with the physical and emotional
reactions to the sexual assault or rape, as well as provide
you with necessary information about medical and criminal
justice system procedures. Seeking counseling is an
important way to regain a sense of control over your life
after surviving a sexual assault. Contact your local rape
crisis program even if services are not expressly advertised
for male rape survivors. The number can be found in your
local phone book listed under "Community Services Numbers,"
"Emergency Assistance Numbers," "Survival Numbers" or
"Rape."
Sexual assault and rape are serious crimes. As a sexual
assault survivor, you have the right to report the crime to
the police. This decision is one only you can make. But
because authorities are not always sensitive to male sexual
assault victims, it is important to have a friend or
advocate go with you to report the crime for support and
assistance.
References
Brochman, Sue. (July 30, 1991). "Silent Victims: Bringing
Male Rape Out of the Closet." The Advocate, 582: 38 - 43.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1997). Criminal Victimization
in the United States, 1994. Washington, DC: Bureau of
Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (March 1985). The Crime of
Rape. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S.
Department of Justice.
Donaldson, Donald. (1990). "Rape of Males," in Dynes, Wayne,
ed. Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. New York: Garland
Publications.
Groth, A. Nicholas and Ann Wolbert Burgess. (1980). "Male
Rape: Offenders and Victims." American Journal of
Psychiatry, 137(7): 806 - 810.
Groth, A. Nicholas and B. A. Birnbaum. (1979). Men Who Rape:
The Psychology of the Offender. New York: Plenum.
Harry, Joseph. (1992). "Conceptualizing Anti-Gay Violence,"
in Herek, Gregory and Kevin Berrill, eds. Hate Crimes:
Confronting Violence Against Lesbians and Gay Men. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Isley, Paul. (1991). "Adult Male Sexual Assault in the
Community: A Literature Review and Group Treatment Model,"
in Burgess, Ann, ed. Rape and Sexual Assault III: A Research
Handbook. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.
Lipscomb, Gary H. et al. (1992). "Male Victims of Sexual
Assault." Journal of the American Medical Association,
267(22): 3064 - 3066.
McMullen, Richie J. (1990). Male Rape: Breaking the Silence
on the Last Taboo. London: GMP Publishers Ltd.
Mezey, Gillian and Michael King. (1989). "The Effects of
Sexual Assault on Men: A Survey of 22 Victims."
Psychological Medicine, 19(1): 205 - 209.
National Center for Victims of Crime. (1992). "Rape-Related
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder," INFOLINK, Arlington, VA.
National Center for Victims of Crime. (1995). "Sexual
Assault Legislation," INFOLINK, Arlington, VA.
Porter, Eugene. (1986). Treating the Young Male Victim of
Sexual Assault. Syracuse, NY: Safer Society Press.
Bibliography
Allers, Christopher et al. (1991). "HIV Vulnerability and
the Adult Survivor of Childhood Sexual Abuse." Child Abuse
and Neglect, 17: 291 - 298.
Baker, Timothy and Ann Burgess, Ellen Brickman and Robert
Davis. (1990). "Rape Victims' Concerns About Possible
Exposure to HIV Infection." Journal of Interpersonal
Violence,
5(1): 49 - 60.
Bradway, Becky. (1993). Sexual Violence Facts and
Statistics. Springfield, IL: Illinois Coalition Against
Sexual Assault.
Burgess, Ann and Timothy Baker. (1992). "AIDS and Victims of
Sexual Assault." Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 43(5):
447 - 448.
Comstock, Gary. (1991). Violence Against Lesbians and Gay
Men. New York: Columbia University Press.
Fuller, A. Kenneth and Robert Bartucci. (1991). "HIV
Transmission and Childhood Sexual Abuse." Journal of Sex
Education & Therapy, 17(1).
Gostin, Lawrence et al. (1994). "HIV Testing, Counseling,
and Prophylaxis After Sexual Assault." Journal of the
American Medical Association, 271(18): 1436 - 1444.
Jenny, Carole et al. (1990). "Sexually Transmitted Diseases
in Victims of Rape."
The New England Journal of Medicine, 322(11).
National Center for Victims of Crime. (1992). Looking Back,
Moving Forward: A Program for Communities Responding to
Sexual Assault. Arlington, VA: National Center for Victims
of Crime.
National Center for Victims of Crime and Crime Victims
Research and Treatment Center. (1992). Rape in America: A
Report to the Nation. Arlington, VA: National Center for
Victims of Crime.
For additional information, please contact:
Centers for Disease Control National HIV/AIDS Hotline
American Social Health Association
P.O. Box 13827
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
(800) 342 - AIDS
(800) 344 - SIDA (Spanish)
(800) 243 - 7889 (TDD)
Provides information 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, about
HIV/AIDS and will send free, written information, including
legal services, counseling and therapies.
Men's Resource Center
12 Southeast 14th
Portland, OR 97214
(503) 235 - 3433
Men Stopping Rape
306 North Brooks Street
Madison, WI 53715
(608) 257 - 4444
National AIDS Clearinghouse
Centers for Disease Control
P.O. Box 6003
Rockville, MD 20849
(800) 458 - 5231
(800) 243 - 7012 (TDD)
Distributes a variety of educational materials to the
public. Provides expert referrals.
National Coalition Against Sexual Assault
125 N. Enola Drive
Enola, PA 17025
(717) 728 - 9764
National Crime Victims Research & Treatment Center
Medical University of South Carolina
171 Ashley Avenue
Charleston, SC 29425
(843) 792 - 2945
National Gay & Lesbian Task Force
2320 17th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20009
(202) 332 - 6483
Your state Attorney General, county/city prosecutor, or
county/city law enforcement:
Check in the Blue pages of your local phone book under the
appropriate section heading of either "Local Governments,"
"County Governments," or "State Government."
INFOLINK ©: A Program of the National Center for Victims of
Crime.
All rights reserved.
Copyright © 1997 by the National Center for Victims of
Crime. This information may be freely distributed, provided
that it is distributed in its entirety and includes this
copyright notice.
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